Marine Cargo Surveyors Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Marine Cargo Surveyors - Research Paper Example Marine surveyors have invented their personal businesses, desiring to offer their services to a number of clients and to make sure they embrace fair views in their job. In addition, they rejoice and enjoy professional independence. But others are permanent employees of the marine insurers and their clients, thus enabling the vital mediators in damage claims. As far as their training services are concerned, marine surveyors normally join the field through apprenticeship or they achieve a diploma from a technical institution or professional association in marine surveying (United States Congress, 1860). Reasons of maritime cargo surveyors According to Davies M & Force R (2005), Marine surveyors carry out hull and machinery surveys, evaluate the sale and purchase of the ship, check the general and weather conditions of before shipment and arrival of the vessel. Involve in certifying reports and progress of marine consultants, examine the classification surveys, and carry out the investi gation and surveys of loss and damages. Generally, marine surveyors’ participation therefore has to seek without relaxation once damage or loss is recognized. Additionally, the surveyor must take pleasure in uninterfered access to the interest matter of claim to ensure he may arrange every required consultant with independent professionals. Consequently, cargo surveyors are meant to perform the activities such as cargo surveys and quality inspection, sampling, damage cargo survey, inspection of agriculture products, draft surveys, investigation of contamination and shortage of bulk cargo, and supervising offloading and loading of containerized cargo. Workings of maritime cargo surveyors Marine cargo surveyors read the documents of the vessels that set forward securing procedures and cargo loading, initiate stability factors, and capacities to determine cargo capabilities according to cargo regulations and design as suggested by Nichols & Williams (2008). Marine surveyors chec k loaded, secured cargo in holds and tied to decks to determine that relevant cargo handling regulations have been surveyed. They measures depth of water and fuel in tanks as well as ship holds by using tape measure, reed drafts markings, and sounding line to determine the depth of the ship. Moreover, for surveyors to determine the volume of stored water and fuel, hold capacities, vessel stability factors and weight of the cargo, they calculate it by using calculator and mathematical standard methods. In addition to that, they examine cargoes of maritime vessels to verify compliance with international and national safety and health regulations in cargo storage and handling. Marine surveyors also issues certificates of conformity when infringements are recognized. Give crew advises in the techniques of packing heavy and dangerous cargo, like shoring, extra support beams, and extra stronger lashings, according to the skills of hazards when ferrying explosives, grain, heavy machinery a nd logs. Lastly, thy examine information achieved from survey, documents reports of research, and prepares recommendations relating to the capacity of the ship, marine surveyors help in coroners’ inquiries and attend court cases as a professional witness. Ultimately, they examine the devices of cargo handling like hoists, boom

Critically assess the elements of a successful e-commerce regulatory Essay

Critically assess the elements of a successful e-commerce regulatory model - Essay Example In the last 5 years, the government has contended that the introduction of several layers of regulation based on EU legislation into UK law has increased customer confidence in e-businesses3 and increased these businesses standards of good practice. The implementation of the Distance Selling directive into UK law was to inspire confidence and increase transactions in cross-border shopping, including the internet. The regulation cannot be contracted out and any inconsistencies between the terms of the contract and the regulations would make the contract void. It does not cover contracts relating to auctions, financial services or property and partial exemptions for accommodation, transport, catering or leisure services and goods intended for everyday consumption supplied by regular roundsmen. This information must comply with the principles of good faith in commercial transactions and the principles governing the protection of minors. However, Consumers Internationals5 research revealed that 1 in 5 sites failed to give clear total cost of the transaction despite the fact that the price of goods and services including all taxes must be provided. They have also found very few sites actually providing written information on the right to a contract withdrawal. Subject to the following exceptions , once the supplier has met his obligations relating to the provision of information, the consumer has at least 7 working days to cancel the contract without penalty (the cooling-off period6) : If the supplier fails to meet his obligations to provide information, this period is extended by 3 months. He also has 30 days to repay the amounts paid by the consumer and, in certain cases, may deduct from the refund the costs of recovering the goods. If the consumers payment card was fraudulently used, he may request cancellation of payment and reimbursement of the amounts paid. The burden of proof lies on the card issuer

Effect of Estrogen on Osteoclasts and Osteoblasts

Effect of Estrogen on Osteoclasts and Osteoblasts Osteoporosis is a disease that afflicts many people, especially women. This disease is very debilitating and is characterized by excessive bone loss which results in severe fractures. There are two types of osteoporosis: Type I and Type II. Type I is the more severe type and is prevalent in post-menopausal women. There have been numerous hypothesis and studies as to the cause of osteoporosis and its relation to menopause (Riggs, 2002). The findings suggest that estrogen plays a major role. Estrogen receptors have been identified in bone and are involved in the production and maintenance of both osteoclasts and osteoblasts (Eriksen, 1988; Girasole, 1992). Osteoclasts function in bone resorption, and osteoblasts function in synthesizing new bone, hence these two cell types have opposite effects on bone (Saladin, 2010). Studies have shown that a decrease in estrogen levels in post-menopausal women is the primary cause of this reduction in bone density (Girasole 1992; Menolagas, 2002). Estrogen is a steroid hormone that has many different functions. It is primarily involved in sexual differentiation and maturation, but also has some less obvious effects including thermoregulation and the maintenance of bone mineral deposition. Estrogen is a lipophilic hormone and therefore is capable of diffusing through the cell membrane and binding its two intracellular receptors, ERÃŽ ± and ERÃŽ ² There are three female sex hormones: estrone (E1), estradiol (E2) and estriol (E3), however, estrogen is the common name used to refer to all three, though estradiol is the main form of estrogen (Carlsten, 2005). Estrogen is mainly synthesized in the ovaries, though its synthesis is not limited to the ovaries. Some peripheral tissues, such as adipose tissue, are capable of producing estrogen by way of steroid precursors (Nelson, 2001; Simpson 1981). Synthesis of estrogen involves many different precursors the first of which is cholesterol. Cholesterol is converted in the ovarian follicle to pregnenolone which can be converted to 17ÃŽ ±-hydroxypregnenolone. 17 ÃŽ ±-hydroxypregnenolone is then converted to dehydroepiandrosterone which is converted to androstenedione which undergoes a conversion to the androgen, testosterone. Aromatase then converts testosterone to esradiol (E2). Estradiol is then secreted from the follicle and can either act on its target tissue or undergo another conversion to estrone (E1) and estriol (E3) which takes place in the liver. Estrogen has two main receptors ( ERÃŽ ± and ERÃŽ ²) that mediate its primary effects. These receptors belong to the nuclear receptor family and are transcription factors that are regulated by ligands (Carleson, 2005). Estrogen receptors require numerous coregulatory proteins that have cell-specific expressions. These cell specific expressions delineate some of the specific actions of estrogen in its various target tissues (Heldring, 2007).The two estrogen receptors maintain some highly conserved regions such as their DNA binding domains; both ERÃŽ ± and ERÃŽ ² bind the same DNA response elements. Other domains are not at all conserved, such as the amino-terminal which exhibits significant variability in sequence as well as in length. The ligand-binding domain is located at the C-terminal and is a multifunctional domain. Both the N-terminal and the C-terminal contain activation functions, AF-1 and Af-2, respectively. These activation functions, work to activate transcription by recru iting coregulatory proteins to the DNA-binding domain. Though ERÃŽ ± and ERÃŽ ² are fairly homologous, they are actually derived from separate genes which are located on separate chromosomes. ERÃŽ ± and ERÃŽ ² also give very different splice variants (Heldring, 2007). ERÃŽ ± and ERÃŽ ² regularaly act as antagonists of each other when expressed in the same cells; hence, estrogen signaling functions as a balance between these two contradictory receptors (Carleson, 2005). It appears as if ERÃŽ ² works to inhibit the effect of ERÃŽ ± by not only altering the recruitment of transcription factors essential for of ERÃŽ ±-dependent transcription, but also by increasing the degredation of ERÃŽ ± by way of ERÃŽ ²2, a splice variant of ERÃŽ ² (Heldring, 2007). Estrogen receptors have been found in many non-reproductive tissues including bone. This fact lends credence to the theory of estrogens involvement in the maintenance of bone. Estrogen Signaling There are a few distinct pathways that are involved in estrogen signaling. Three of these signaling pathways are ligand-dependent, the fourth is ligand-independent. The first ligand-dependent pathway is the classical or direct pathway (Fig. 1a.) in which the ligand (usually estradiol) binds the receptor and this ligand receptor complex then dimerizes with another ligand-receptor complex in order to bind estrogen response elements in the promoters of target genes (Carleston, 2005). The second ligand-dependent pathway is referred to as the tethered pathway (Fig. 1b.). The tethered pathway involves protein-protein interactions with transcription factors. These interactions occur after the receptor has been activated by the ligand. Hence, the receptor activates transcription by an indirect DNA binding mechanism (Carleston, 2005). The non-genomic pathway (Fig 1c.) is also ligand-dependent but is not as well understood as the previous two. It is known that the receptor is activated by the ligand, which then initiates a signaling cascade resulting in the activation of second messenger systems (Heldring, 2007). Studies have shown that the activation of these second messenger systems display some common effects including an increase in the production of cAMP levels as well as the activation of the MAPK pathway (Lim, 2006). This activation of second messenger systems ultimately leads to a rapid physiological response without involving gene regulation (Heldring, 2007). The fourth signaling pathway is ligand-independent (Fig.1d.) and involves activation by way of other signaling pathways such as that of Growth Hormone which ultimately leads to the activation of gene regulation. This activation of gene regulation occurs due to the activation of protein kinases that work to phosphorylate the estrogen receptor. This phosphorylation causes receptor dimerization which allows the receptors to then bind the DNA and activate gene transcription (Carleson, 2005; Heldring, 2007). a.) The direct ligand dependent pathway in which the ligand directly binds the receptor which dimerizes and binds the DNA promoter region. b.) The tethered pathway is indirect and involves protein interactions with transcription factors that allow for the binding of the transcription factor to the promoter region c.) The non-genomic pathway involvs activation by the ligand which then can cause a signal transduction pathway resulting in activation of second-messenger systems. d.) The ligand-independent pathwayin which activation occurs by other signalling pathways (i.e. GH) and eventually leads to activation of gene transcription. Source: Heldring, Pike, Andersson et al. Estrogen Receptors: How do they signal and What are Their Targets. Physiol. Rev. 87: 905-931. 2007. Estrogen and Osteoporosis Osteoporosis is a disease that is characterized by a decrease in bone mineral density and hence an increase in the frequency of bone fractures (Though osteoporosis is often associated with post-menopausal women, the disease is not necessarily limited by gender. Osteoporosis was separated into two classes in 1983 by Riggs and Melton. The two types of osteoporosis (Type I and Type II) differ in regions of bone mineral density, patterns of fracture, causal mechanisms and hormonal changes. Type I osteoporosis is the more severe form of osteoporosis, however, type II is more common especially in the elderly (70+) (Riggs, 2003). Type I Osteoporosis is prevalent in post-menopausal women. It usually arises within 20 years after menopause and is associated with excessive cancellous bone loss. Fractures occur at sites that are rich in cancellous bone. Type I osteoporosis is associated with an increase in osteoclast function and a decrease in osteoblast function. This is thought to be due to a decrease in the levels of estrogen present in post-menopausal women (Girasole, 1992; Ribot, 1997). Osteoporosis has been found to occur in men also; primarily elderly men. The underlying explanation for osteoporosis is that the sex steroids play a role in the remodeling process of bones. Hence, when ovarian function ceases due to menopause in women, estrogen levels decrease and bone remodeling is therefore disrupted in a deleterious fashion. Osteoporosis in men is associated with a loss of androgens which is generally due to either castration or aging (Manolagas, 2002). Type II osteoporosis is prevalent in both men and women and can occur at any age, though it is more often associated with the elderly (above age 70). Type II osteoporosis is characterized by the loss of trabecular bone. It is generally due to aging effects such as hyperparathyroidism and impaired bone formation, and also a decrease in vitamin D and PTH levels. There is some speculation as to whether or not Type II osteoporosis may also be due to late effects of decreased estrogen levels (Riggs, 2003). Evidence for estrogens involvement in osteoporosis and its actions on maintaining bone mass can be seen in the study conducted by Riggs et al. which involved 36 women with vertebral fractures due to type I osteoporosis. These women all displayed a high bone turnover rate. The women with type I osteoporosis were compared with 36 normal women (women who did not exhibit Type I osteoporosis) after they were given small amounts of the sex steroids: estradiol, estrone, and testosterone. Blood and urine samples were continuously taken (about every 24 hours) and analyzed to reveal that the levels of the sex steroids were equally apparent in both groups of women. However, the amount of all bone biochemical markers (involved in bone turnover) appeared higher in the osteoporotic women. Though the experiment did not detect a difference in the sex steroid concentrations between the two groups of women, post-experimental power calculations were done to show that there are differences between the t wo groups when ÃŽ ± = .05 and 1-ÃŽ ² = 0.8. The differences for serum estrone, estradiol and testosterone were as follows: 6.3%, 9.9%, and 4.4%, respectively. Some of the women with osteoporosis then underwent another study in which they were split into two groups. One group of osteoporotic women received one-years worth of treatment with transdermal estrogen while the other group of osteoporotic women received a years worth of treatment with a placebo. The women who underwent estrogen treatment displayed a remarkably larger decrease in bone turnover markers than the women treated with the placebo (Riggs, 2002). Osteoclasts, Osteoblasts and the Estrogen Connection Osteoclasts are cells involved in maintaing bone homeostasis and are located on the bone surface in the anterior portion where they work to digest old bone (Manolagas, 2002). Osteoclasts are derived from macrophages, and are very large multinuclear cells formed from the fusion of multiple stem cells (Saladin, 2010). Osteoclasts function in digesting bone; hence they are involved in bone resorption. Bone resorption is a process that releases calcium back into the circulatory system by digesting bone tissue (Saladin, 2010). The function of osteoclasts is essential to the broader process of bone remodeling. Osteoblasts are also involved in maintaining bone homeostasis and are active in the process of bone remodeling. Osteoblasts are located in the posterior portion of the bone surface and work to produce new bone in the areas that underwent excavation by osteoclasts (Manolagas, 2002). Osteoblasts are derived from mesenchymal stem cells (Zallone, 2006). The mesenchymal stem cells give rise to osteogenic cells which give rise to most other bone cell types including osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are immature bone cells that are located beneath the endosteum and periosteum of the bone. Osteoblasts synthesize the components of the bone matrix. The matrix undergoes mineral deposition which causes it to harden, and hence the osteoblasts become trapped within the matrix. When osteoblasts mature, they become osteocytes which function in maintaining bone (Saladin, 2010). Osteoblasts function in making new bone. They deposit calcium salts into the bone matrix in order to make hydroxyapate which is the calcium reserve in bone. Osteoblasts fill in the cavities that were excavated by osteoclasts with new bone. Osteoblasts may be stimulated by various signals and hormones such as calcitonin and estrogen which both function in decreasing blood calcium levels and maintaining calcium levels in bone (Saladin, 2010). Estrogen receptors (ERÃŽ ± and ERÃŽ ²) as well as androgen receptors (AR) have been identified in both osteoblasts and osteoclasts and their parental cells. The presence of these receptors indicates that estrogen has a direct effect in mediating the process of bone remodeling (Eriksen, 1988; Girasole, 1992; Manolagas, 2002). Estrogen and androgens also have an indirect effect on the process of bone remodeling via the cytokine, interleukin-6 (IL-6) which is an important factor in the process osteoclastogenesis in bone marrow stromal cells (Carleston, 2005; Manolagas, 2002). The Study conducted by Girasole et al. has shown that estrogen has an inhibitory effect on IL-6, which results in a decrease in the production of osteoclasts. This decrease in osteoclastogenesis ultimately causes a decrease in bone resorption (Girasole, 1992). Estrogen and androgens inhibit the production of IL-6 in vitro by inhibiting Interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor-necrosis factor (TNF)-ÃŽ ±. IL-1 and TNF-ÃŽ ± are involved in the synthesis of IL-6 (Ribot, 1997). Some studies suggest that estrogen has more of an effect on TNF-mediated production of IL-6, than on IL-1 mediated production (Girasole et al. 1992). The expression of the IL-6 receptor subunits, gp130 and IL-6-RÃŽ ±, are also suppressed in bone marrow stromal cells and in osteoblast progenitor cells (Manolagas, 2002). Studies done in mice have shown that when the IL-6 gene is knocked out or neutralized (via antibodies) the upregulation of colony-forming unit-granulocyte/macrophage (CFU-GM) (which osteoclasts are derived from) in bone marrow is prevented. Hence, there is not an increase in osteoclast production. The results showed that the antigen caused the estradiol-induced inhibition of bone resorption to itself be inhibited (Ribot, 1997). A decrease in estrogen (as well as androgens) also has an effect on osteoblasts. One mechanism by which osteoblasts are regulated by estrogen can be observed in bipotential stromal cells; these cells express the estrogen receptors. The bipotential stromal cells are parents to both adipocytes and osteoblasts. A study conducted by Okazaki et al. in mouse bone marrow stromal cell lines, found that estrogen works to mediate the differentiation of the parental bipolar stromal cells towards the production of osteoblasts (Okazaki, 2002). Post-menopausal women who exhibit bone loss have been observed to have an increased amount of lipid concentration in their bone marrow. Hence, a decrease in estrogen would cause an increase in adipogenesis and a decrease in osteoblastogenesis (Okazaki, 2002). This decrease in osteoblastogenesis would result in a decrease in bone formation. Estrogen Replacement Therapy A study that was conducted on post-menopausal Chinese women by Sun et al. was also useful in determining the effects of estrogen treatment for osteoporosis. These women all ranged from 41-58 years of age and had undergone menopause for more than a year. The women were split into 4 different groups. Each group received different levels of 17ÃŽ ²-estradiol (E2) gel along with a form of progesterone, either micronized progesterone (MP) or medroxyprogesterone (MPA). The progesterone was added along with the estrogen in order to prevent endometrial hyperplasia which may occur as a result of estrogen replacement therapy. The dosages differed in both progesterone type and concentration as well as in estrogen concentration. The exact dosages for each group were as follows: group 1 received 1.5 mg E2 and 100 mg MP, group 2 received 1.5 mg E2 and 2 mg MPA, group 3 received 0.75 mg E2 and 100 mg MP, and group 4 received 0.75 mg of E2 and 2 mg MPA. These dosages were administered once a day, 25 days a month for at least a year (some of the subjects were studied for two or three years). Blood and urine samples were taken from these women and monitored for bone mineral density (BMD). The results showed that after about a year of this treatment, the average increase in BMD in cancellous bone of the 4 groups ranged from 4.6%6.4%. After 36 months an increase in the BMD of the bones in the neck and the lumbar vertebrae were observed; the averages ranged from 4.3%-7.5% and 4.2%-6.2%, respectively. This study also found that the BMD in the hip (an area that is prone to fractures), had significantly higher levels than the baseline levels. The main purpose of the study was to determine an appropriate dosage of estrogen and progestin for post-menopausal Chinese women; the results of the study indicated that either 0.75 mg or 1.5 mg of E2 daily is sufficient for prevention of bone loss in Chinese women. The study suggests that hormone replacement therapy has a significant effect on bo ne, especially during the first two years of treatment (Sun, 2002). The knowledge of estrogens actions on bone and the inhibitory effect it has on osteoclastogenesis, has led to the utilization of estrogen as a treatment for osteoporosis. Estrogens ability to maintain bone mass in post-menopausal women has made estrogen replacement therapy a valuable form of treatment. This treatment utilizes the protective properties of estrogen on bone and functions in increasing bone mineral density (BMD) in post-menopausal women (Sun, 2002). Estrogens positive effects on bone are amplified during the treatment; hence, estrogen induces stimulation of osteoblastogenesis and inhibits osteoclastogenesis via IL-6 (Girasole, 1992; Okazaki, 2002). The type of estrogen administered (other than estriol) seems to have no difference in effectiveness; hence, synthetic estrogen, 17ÃŽ ²-estridiol, and equine estrogen all have equal effects on the maintenance of bone mass and all work to decrease the amount of bone turnover (Ribot, 1997). The method by which estrogen is adminis tered (i.e. transdermally, percutaneously, etc.) also does not appear to make a difference in its effectiveness. The dosages of estrogen as well as the duration of the treatment seem to be the only variables involved in determining the effectiveness of estrogen replacement therapy (Ribot., 1997). In order for estrogen replacement therapy to have a long term effect, estrogen must be administered for about 5-7 years (Cauley 1995; Ribot, 1997). Estrogen replacement therapy is also most effective if it is initiated early after menopause. A study conducted by Cauley et al. found that women who started estrogen treatment within 5 years of menopause and/or underwent treatment for 10 years or more, had the most effective and long-lasting results (Cauley 1995). Though Estrogen Replacement Therapy is a promising and effective mechanism for treatment of osteoporosis, it is associated with some serious physiological risks. Long-term usage of estrogen has been known to cause endometrial cancers. However, when estrogen is administered in conjunction with progestins, the risk of endometrial hyperplasia is significantly reduced. (Ribot, 1997; Sun, 2002). Many studies have been conducted to determine whether or not there is a relationship between estrogen and breast cancer. Some studies suggest that there is a correlation between the risk of breast cancer and use of estrogen (Lim, 2006). Other studies suggest that there is no correlation (Ribot, 1997). Though estrogen replacement therapy is associated with a few serious risks, it also has other positive physiological effects on other areas of the body, not just bone. For example, estrogen is thought to have a preventive effect on Alzheimers disease and also on Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) in post-m enopausal women (Ribot, 1997; Tang, 1996). The onset of type I osteoporosis is generally characterized by a loss of ovarian function which therefore results in a loss of estrogen in postmenopausal women. (Manolagas 2002). Estrogen can be used as a treatment for osteoporosis due to the presence of estrogen receptors in osteoclasts, osteoblasts and their precursors, as well as in bone marrow stromal cells (Zallone, 2006). The positive actions of estrogen on bone are mainly due to the suppressive actions of estrogen on bone resorption by osteoclasts (Okazaki, 2002). When Estrogen levels are decreased, the normal regeneration process, which involves bone resorption followed by an appropriate amount of bone formation, is disturbed (Zallone, 2006). Various in vitro studies have been conducted that demonstrate that the presence of estrogen (as well as androgens) increases the action of factors that work to inhibit the process of osteoclastogenesis (Bellido, 1995). The decrease in the production of osteoclasts due to estrogen would t herefore cause a decrease in the process of bone resorption (Okazaki 2002). Estrogen also has an effect on the production and differentiation of osteoblastic cells. However, it has the opposite effect on osteoblasts and thereby stimulates their production by shifting the mechanism of bipolar stromal cells towards the production of osteoblastic cells rather than that of adipocytes (Okazaki, 2006). Hence, estrogen works to decrease bone resorption and increase bone formation, thereby creating a protective effect on bone which can be utilized to treat such debilitating diseases as osteoporosis.

Pagan Elements in Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf Essay -- Whos Afraid

Pagan Elements in Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf    "I am preoccupied with history" George observes in Act I (p. 50) of Edward Albee's Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf. But his relationship with his wife, Martha, seems to lean almost towards anthropology. Pagan social and religious elements in Albee's work seem to clarify and enhance the basic themes of the play.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pagan trappings adorn the whole structure of the play: the prevalence of alcohol, the "goddamn Saturday night orgies" (p. 7) Martha's father throws, Martha's identification as "the only true pagan on the eastern seaboard... [who] paints blue circles [of woad?] around her things" (p. 73) or "the Earth Mother" (p. 189), or George's injunction, in Old Testament language, to "just gird your blue-veined loins, girl" (p. 205). The stage seems set for religious ritual. Even the act titles have pagan religious significance. "Fun and Games" are of course the prelude to many a religious event, even in the Christian Easter and Christmas. "Walpurgisnacht" or "St. Walburga's Night" is the evening before May Day, when Christians claim witches and nightmares are on the roam. But May Day and the evening before is also the pagan Beltaine, a day of fertility rituals as the God and Goddess bring vitality and passion to Nature -- a maypole signifies masculine fertility; the flowers about it show feminine vitality ("flores para los muertos"? (p. 195)). And "The Exorcism" is a banishment of the spirit of evil, in the sacrifice of the imaginary child who has become a scapegoat bearing all George and Martha's sins. Martha tries to wield her power like an old-style matriarch, saying "I wear the pants in this house" (p. 157) and controlling Nick as a "houseboy" (p. 1... ...avior by sweeping away its very foundation, by changing her beloved son into the pagan scapegoat who bears away all the twisted, hateful history they have both constructed around him. The pagan elements in Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? strengthen the main themes and plot of Albee's play. Martha's boisterousness and sexuality make her a sort of pagan priestess, but one trapped by the myths and illusions she has constructed in her worship. But George's Latin burial service at last banishes the restless spirit who had so haunted his relationship with Martha, and it bears away much of their tortured past, making a fresh slate. Samhain has been fulfilled: the God and Goddess begin again, to build a new, more fertile relationship between themselves for the new year. Page numbers for Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? are taken from the 1984 Atheneum edition.

Mary Seacole

Mary Seacole Mary Seacole was born in 1805, in Jamaica. She nursed soldiers during the Crimean war which started in 1854. Her mother was Jamaican and her dad, a Scottish soldier. Her mother was also a nurse and used herbs for medicines and treatments. At the age of 12, she had already started to behave like a nurse because of the help she provided to her mother with the sick and wounded. When she was older, Mary opened a hotel in Jamaica to help care for the sick. Mary wanted to help those soldiers involved in conflict in Europe.She travelled to England in the UK but no one was interested in taking up her offer to help the ill and wounded soldiers. She instead stayed in England, paying her own fares and eventually setting up another hotel. There, she sold goods and clothing for the soldiers in the hotel. She would cook, clean and care for the soldiers. Mary tried to enlist her help for the Crimean war but was not chosen by Florence Nightingale who was in charge of caring for the woun ded. Mary instead travelled to the battlefield alone (covering 4,000 miles).She helped on the battlefield, sometimes even during cannon fire. Mary cared for the men very lovingly. The wounded men loved Mary and called her ‘Mother Seacole’. Florence Nightingale was unimpressed by Mary Seacole's work in Crimea, and accused her of intoxicating soldiers and running a brothel. If you ask someone ‘Do you know who Mary Seacole is? ’ they might say ‘No’ this is because Florence Nightingale got more recognition than Mary Seacole. Mary Seacole did just as much as Florence Nightingale, which is why, I think Mary Seacole should have a day to be remembered.

Phonological Development in Children Essay

Phonology is study of the sound system of the language and the rules for their combination. There are about 200 sounds used in languages throughout the world. As we all know, sound is the beginning of language learning. In learning to talk, children must acquire knowledge of the phonological forms of words and phrases of their native language and must learn the articulatory and phonatory movements needed to produce these words and phrases in an adult-like manner. Children learn their phonological system of native language even since as young infant. They first year of an infant’s life which is before they can utter their first word are known as prelinguistic stage. Children do not utter their first word until they are about one year old. At one month, they show categorical perception of speech. A perceptual ability is ability to segment one sentence into individual word units. This ability usually leads to production and thus helps in the development of speech production. Even though children do not produce their first word until they approximately 12 month years old, the ability to produce speech sound start to develop at a much younger age. After the mother giving birth, the young infant will produce undifferentiated birth cry. Within 0 to 6 weeks, the infant can produce reflexive sound which are glottal catch and vowels such as ah, eh, and uh. Plus the infant also can produce some variety non-crying sound. They also produce differentiated cry which that true vocal communication begins. In the range 6 to 16 weeks, infant start to produce cooing sound when they are happy. Moreover, they begin to produce single syllables and blowing bubbles. At 4 month, infant still prefer infant-directed compare to adult-director speech. Plus by 4 month, infant have learned which feature they have to pay attention to at the suprasegmental level such as intonation and stress. At 5 months old, infant prefer to hear their own name to similar sounding word. On the other hand, by 6 month old, they expose more to their native language and start to learn not to pay attention to sound that are not meaningful in their native language. The production of vowel sound in the first 2 month lead to the production of consonants. First back consonants ([g], [k]) are being produce around 2 to 3 months and front consonants ([m], [n], [p]) is being able to produce by infant at about 6 months old. In the range 3 to 6 month, babbling begins influence by their native language. In addition, they babbling show pitch and inflection change. They start to produce double syllables-VCV such as aga. Children are also able to puts lips together and say â€Å"m† and nasal tone is heard. Not only that, they also begin to vocalize their pleasure and displeasure. Infants in this range will stop vocalizing when adults enters and have self-initiated vocal play. They are also cooing, chuckling, gurgling and laughing. At 7 months, they able to segment word from speech that shows a strong-weak stress pattern, which is the most common stress pattern in the English language. The process that allows infant to use prosodic cues in speech input to learn about language structure is known as ‘prosodic bootstrapping’ . While children at 8 months old generally do not understand the meaning of the most single word yet, they still able to understand the meaning of certain phrases they hear a lot. By 9 months old, infant can differentiate native from nonnative language. Children uses [m], [n],[t],[d],[b],[p] and [y] in babbling multiple syllables by 6 to 9 months old. They babbling tunefully or singing tones and uses several of sound combination. They also begin to have inflected vocal play and intonation patterns heard. Infant also copy intonation and speech sound from the adult in their own repertoire. Reduplicative babbling begins for example bababa. From 9 to 12 months, children vocalize during play and also begin to vocalize in front of mirror. They are able to jabber loudly with wide variety of sounds and intonations. Infant combine different vowel and consonant into syllable string in vocal play and at this stage phonetic drift begins. Infant also acquire variegated babbling and combines different syllables in vocal play. At this stage, children normally have not yet begun to speak and thus have no production vocabulary but in the range 10 to 11 months old, children’s comprehension vocabulary size is about 11 to 154 words . During this transitional period from babbling to the utterance of the first word, children also produce â€Å"protowords†. Protowords is invented words that are used consistently to express specific meanings. In the range 1 year old to 1  ½ years old, infants usually use jargon to communicate. We can also hear some repetition of words or echolalia. They are uses most vowels and consonants and some initial consonant. Basically, their utterances unintelligible with exception of a few words. Intelligibility refers to the proportion of the speaker’s output that listeners can easily understand. They commonly leave out final consonant and some initial consonant. By the range of this age, they start to produce word in VC structure such as bo/boat and able to imitates some word accurately. By 14 months old, children usually produce their first word. First word is simple structure and contains the same sounds that were use in late babbling. At 16 months children comprehension vocabulary size ranges from about 92 to 321 words. At this age, children’s production vocabulary size at this age is typically around 50 words. Children’s production becomes more consistent around the a ge of 18 months. Within 1  ½ to 2 years old, children’s words increasing in frequency and jargon almost gone by 2 years old. Commonly, they will ask questions by raising intonation at end of phrase. Plus, children show improvement in intelligibility. Approximately 65% intelligible by 2 years. In addition, word produced with CVC structure such as big appear at this range of age. Intelligibility improve when they at 2 to 2  ½ years old from 65% to 70%. Plus, they may skip over final consonant, reduce consonant blend and substitute one consonant for another. The size of the vocabulary production is about 50 to 550 words. Children also seem to build up their vocabulary faster if the speech they hear is related to their focus of attention more often. At 2  ½ to 3 years old, children still do some substitution and alteration of consonants. They continue to improve their intelligibility to approximately 80%. By this age they can mastered consonants; [p], [m], [n], [w], [h]. Children at 3 to 3  ½ years use final consonants most of time. At this age, Final-Consonant Deletion process, consonant assimilation, diminutization, doubling, prevocalic voicing, reduplication unstressed syllable deletion and velar fronting should be gone. Children become very intelligible in connected speech by age 3  ½ years to 4 years old. They had mastered consonants;[b], [d], [j], [g], [f], [y]. Plus, phonological process continues which are cluster reduction, deplatalization, epenthesis, final devoicing, gliding, stopping and vocalization. In 4 to 4  ½ years, should be few error and substitutions of consonant in children utterances. They become more intelligible especially in connected speech. At the range 4  ½ years to 5 years old, children use most consonant sounds consistently and accurately. Even though, more errors present in difficult blends. At 5 to 6 years old, children mastered consonants such as t, ing, r, l. Follow by 6 to 7 years old, they begin to mastered consonant such as voiceless th, sh, ch, j. Hence, young children have remarkable ability to learn meanings for the words they extract from the speech they are exposed to. Acquisition of the language is strongly relate with environment. The phonological development should be know by parents to detect any phonological disorder on their child.

Arthur Miller, The Crucible Essay Example

Arthur Miller, The Crucible Essay Example Arthur Miller, The Crucible Essay Arthur Miller, The Crucible Essay Essay Topic: The Crucible Untraditional Drama Conventions Does an author always have to stick to conventions in writing? A dramatic convention is an unrealistic element in a literary work that is accepted by readers or viewers because it is traditional. In The Crucible, Arthur Miller deviates from traditional drama conventions in his telling of the Salem Witch Trials. He does not use scenes and uses a narrative technique more than stage directions throughout the play. A conventional play typically includes scenes dividing an act. However, Arthur Miller includes only one scene in the play, Act Two, Scene 2. In this scene, John Proctor meets with Abigail in the woods at night. John warns her that if she does not tell the court that she is blind to spirits(152), he will reveal the truth about their affair. Miller omits this scene from the play because he wants to portray Abigail as a selfish, heartless person who is manipulating others and is aware of her lies. However, the reader can sense that Abigail truly believes in witchcraft and has feelings for John in this scene. She says that she will scrub the world clean(150) from all the hypocrites and liars. She even tells John how good of a wife she will be. This makes the reader sympathize with Abigail because she is clearly insane and believes she is right. Miller uses long paragraphs of prose to describe the setting, introduce characters, and provide background information on the characters and the time period. For example, in Act One, Miller writes:Mrs. Putnam-who is now staring at the bewitched child on the bed†¦(26). In a conventional play, a characters feelings and movements would be included in the stage directions. However, Miller uses limited stage directions. Instead, he chooses to include these narrative passages to provide the reader with a better understanding of the characters and setting. It also helps the reader foreshadow what is going to happen. For instance, Miller talks about Thomas Putnams vindictive nature(14) and how he had Burroughs jailed for debts the man did not owe(14). This helps the reader predict that Mr. Putnam will make false accusations during the witchcraft trials. Arthur Miller cleverly uses untraditional drama conventions in this play. Choosing to do so helps him manipulate the readers feelings toward characters and events. Also, it makes the setting clearer and describes the circumstances. Miller helps the reader make assumptions about what the characters will do in the play based on the background information he provides.

Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic

Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic Idiographic and nomothetic methods represent two different approaches to understanding social life. An idiographic method focuses on individual cases or events. Ethnographers, for example, observe the minute details of everyday life to construct an overall portrait of a specific group of people or community. A nomothetic method, on the other hand, seeks to produce general statements that account for larger social patterns, which form the context of single events, individual behaviors, and experience. Sociologists who practice nomothetic research are likely to work with large survey data sets or other forms of statistical data, and to conduct quantitative statistical analysis as their method of study. Key Takeaways: Idiographic and Nomothetic Research The nomothetic approach involves trying to make generalizations about the world and understand large-scale social patterns.The idiographic approach involves trying to uncover a great deal of detailed information about a narrower subject of study.Sociologists can combine both idiographic and nomothetic approaches in order to develop a more comprehensive understanding of society. Historical Background Nineteenth century German philosopher Wilhelm Windelband, a neo-Kantian, introduced these terms and defined their distinctions.  Windelband used nomothetic to describe an approach to producing knowledge that seeks to make large-scale generalizations. This approach is common in the natural sciences, and is considered by many to be the true paradigm and goal of the scientific approach. With a nomothetic approach, one conducts careful and systemic observation and experimentation in order to derive results that can be applied more broadly outside the realm of study. We might think of them as scientific laws, or general truths that have come from social science research. In fact, we can see this approach present in the work of early German sociologist Max Weber, who wrote about the processes of creating ideal types and concepts meant to serve as general rules. On the other hand, an idiographic approach is one that is specifically focused on a particular case, place, or phenomenon. This approach is designed to derive meanings particular to the research target, and it is not necessarily designed for extrapolating generalizations. Application in Sociology Sociology is a discipline that bridges and combines these two approaches, which is akin to  the disciplines important micro/macro distinction. Sociologists study the relationships between people and society, both at the micro and macro level. People and their everyday interactions and experiences make up the micro. The macro consists of the larger patterns, trends, and social structures that make up society. In this sense, the idiographic approach often focuses on the micro, while the nomothetic approach is used to understand the macro. Methodologically speaking, this means that these two different approaches to conducting social science research also often fall along the qualitative/quantitative divide. One would typically use qualitative methods like ethnographic research, participant observation, interviews, and focus groups to conduct idiographic research. Quantitative methods such as large-scale surveys and statistical analysis of demographic or historical data would be used to conduct nomothetic research. However, many sociologists believe that the best research will combine both nomothetic and idiographic approaches, as well as both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Doing so is effective because it allows for a deep understanding of how large-scale social forces, trends, and problems influence the everyday lives of individual people. For example, if one wanted to develop a robust understanding of the many and varied effects of racism  on Black people, one would be wise to take a nomothetic approach to studying the prevalence of police killings and the health impacts of structural inequalities, among other things that can be quantified and measured in large number. But one would also be wise to conduct ethnography and interviews to understand the experiential realities and effects of living in a racist society, from the standpoint of those who experience it. Similarly, if one were conducting a sociological study of gender bias, one could combine both nomothetic and idiographic approaches. A nomothetic approach could include gathering statistics, such as the number of women in political office or data on the gender pay gap. However, researchers would be wise to also talk to women (for example, through interviews or focus groups) about their own experiences with sexism and discrimination. In other words, by combining statistics with information about the lived experiences of individuals, sociologists can develop a more comprehensive understanding of topics such as racism and sexism. Updated  by Nicki Lisa Cole, Ph.D.

Become an Adjunct Professor

Become an Adjunct Professor In the academic world, there are several types of professors. In general, an adjunct professor is a part-time instructor. Instead of being hired on a full-time, long-term basis, adjunct professors are hired based on the number of classes needed and by the semester. Usually, they are not guaranteed work beyond the current semester and are not given benefits. While they may be retained over and over again, being an adjunct is more of a temporary role in general. Adjunct Professors Contracts Adjunct professors work by contract, so their responsibilities are limited to teaching the course they have been hired to teach. They are not required to conduct research or service activities at the school, as a typical professor would participate in. In general, adjunct professors are paid $2,000 to $4,000 per class, depending on the university or college at which they teach. Many adjunct professors hold full-time jobs and teach to supplement their income or to expand their networking capabilities. Some teach simply because they enjoy it. Other adjunct professors teach several classes at several institutions each semester in order to earn a living from teaching. Some academics argue that adjunct professors are taken advantage of because many so desire to keep a foot in academia despite heavy workloads and poor pay, but it still makes good financial sense for different professionals and institutions. Pros and Cons of Adjunct Teaching There are advantages and disadvantages to becoming an adjunct. One perk is that it can bolster your image and help you develop a professional platform; another is that you will not have to get involved in organizational politics that plague many institutions. The pay is much lower than a regular professor, though, so you may feel like you are doing the same amount of work as colleagues and getting paid less. Its important to consider your motivations and goals when considering a career or job as an adjunct professor; for many people, its a supplement to their career or income instead of a full-time career. For others, it can help them get their foot in the door to becoming a tenured professor. How to Become an Adjunct Professor To be an adjunct professor, you will need to hold a masters degree at the least. Many adjunct professors are in the middle of earning a degree. Some have Ph.D. degrees. Others just have a lot of experience in their respective fields. Are you an existing graduate school student? Network in your department to see if there are any potential openings. Also, inquire locally at community colleges to break in and get some experience.

Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 24

Case Study Example The type of chemical reaction that was taking place in T2 laboratories reaction chambers was an exothermic reaction. An exothermic reaction is a type of chemical reaction where energy is produced during the reaction (Atkins & Paula, 2001). In a typical reaction, for a product to be formed then energy has to be supplied in order to break the bonds of the reactants, however during the formation of products, energy is released. In case of an exothermic reaction, the energy released during the formation of products is higher than the one needed to break the bonds of the reactants. In connection to this, the excess energy is released in form of heat (Atkins & Paula, 2001). In order to show the change in energy as a reaction progress, most chemists prefer using potential energy diagrams. A potential energy diagram has the y-axis representing the potential energy and the x-axis showing the change in potential energy as shown in figure 1 (Atkins & Paula, 2001). Although, just like any other form of reaction, energy is conserved and the excess energy that is not used up is released to the environment in form of kinetic energy, light or heat as shown in figure 3 (Atkins & Paula, 2001). T2 laboratories manufactured {Methylcyclopentadienyl)-manganese(I)tricarbonyl}, a gasoline additive. The chemical reactions used to produce the product were exothermic in nature. Therefore, it is important that the company knows the maximum amount of energy that can be released by the reactants in order to prevent vessels from bursting. It is important that training activities and materials incorporate all aspects of chemical hazards. In addition, all employees especially those in the processing section should be made aware of the consequences of not following the laid down procedures (EPA, 2005). In regards to T2 laboratories, the owners of T2 laboratories were trained on chemistry and chemical engineering. However, it seems they were not trained on chemical reactivity

Influence and Change in Organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Influence and Change in Organizations - Essay Example The ‘best practices’ primarily suggest clarity of purpose. This implies that the underlying problem needs to be identified – why is change needed and how these surveys could influence change. To implement best practices, the organization must be able to communicate and have a clear understanding with the employees on why the organization is undertaking the 360 degree feedback survey (Wimer & Nowack, 2006). There should be no assumptions that it would inevitably lead to enhanced leadership skills (McCarthy & Garavan, 2007). This necessitates that the entire process must be explicitly explained which could help overcome management resistance. This would also ensure rater receptivity because unless the managers accept the feedback they would not engage in development planning. Beliefs about change influence acceptance and hence perceptions of fairness is essential. Multisource feedback is supposed to limit biases and hence anonymity of some raters may have to be main tained. Anonymous raters tend to be candid and positive and usually provide a higher rating (CCL, 2011). However, who rates who is important and if managers are not receptive to certain raters, the effect of MSF is nullified. Thus while some raters should be anonymous, managers should also be allowed to choose some raters. If they are allowed to choose all the raters biases could creep in. Raters should be selected on the basis of the objective criteria and should be jointly selected by the rater and the rate. This would enhance acceptance and perceptions of fairness. To ensure employee readinesss, organizational culture should be supportive to conduct the 365-degree feedback survey (Morgeson, Mumford & Campion, 2005). If the managers have the confidence in the system and perceive fairness, they would be highly likely to make changes. Specific training interventions could help educate the managers about the process, the intentions and the expected outcome (McCarthy & Garavan, 2007). Rater training may help eliminate errors and also help eliminate cynicism from within the organization as cynicism can reduce the impact of the MSF. Rater training should include, in addition to training in reliable and accurate ratings, discussions on how the survey instrument was created and how the information will be used. Besides, anonymity should be assured through confidentiality (Morgeson, Mumford & Campion, 2005). Confidentiality of the rating process is also important and critical to the success of the process. The recipients or the raters too need to be trained in acceptance of the ratings and on how to handle negative feedback. Morgeson, Mumford and Campion (2005) found that most organizations used the surveys for developmental purposes and that it should categorically not be used to determine salaries. When used for developmental purpose the data is the property of the people being rated while when used for administrative purposes, the organization owns the data. To ac hieve the best results, people should be given control of their own data (Wimer & Nowack, 2006). People will feel empowered if they can choose with whom and to what extent they share their feedback. However, the feedback recipient should have access to a trained feedback giver who has experience with assessment. The recipients should also be provided guidance on how to share data and use it constructively. However, an overwhelming amount of data may

Francis Bacon's The New Organon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Francis Bacon's The New Organon - Essay Example The method involves construction of comparison tables. Moreover, experiments are considered crucial since they help the mind in interpreting nature. Bacon argues that human minds are filled with diverse foolish and improper notions that deter them from understanding nature appropriately. He calls these notions idols and argues that they result from the human nature, relations between people and works from some philosophers especially Aristotle. He specifically, focuses on syllogistic method and argues that it is based on various idols and hence cannot be used in proper investigation of nature. This essay focuses on Francis Bacon: The New Organon. The essay discusses how the book addresses the basic features of the method of interpretation of Nature. Additionally, the differences between Interpretation of nature and Anticipation of mind in relation to the four kinds of idols will be discussed. Moreover, the essay will discuss how the four idols discussed by Bacon differ from each othe r. The Basic Features of Francis Bacons Interpretation of Nature Bacon believes that the new method or interpretation of nature is superior to syllogism. ... His method thus focuses on use of induction, which begins with natural phenomenon and follows some intermediate steps to come up with general axioms. Bacon argues that this method is appropriate since it is based on concrete things and not words (Bacon 38-41). Another key feature of Bacon’s interpretation of nature method is it emphasis on experimentation, which are used on investigating nature. Bacon refutes previous uses of experiments to confirm theories. In his opinion, theory should be developed through experiments. Bacon’s New Organon thus emphasizes on use of experiments in investigating nature (Bacon 41-44). Another feature of Bacons method is objectivism. He keeps referring to phrases such as â€Å"knowledge is power.† His method aims at demonstrating the relation between reason and human survival as well as knowledge and human power. He argues that previous method had relied on dogmas, skepticism, and lacked fixed methodologies (Bacon 130-135). How Fran cis Bacon’s â€Å"Interpretation of Nature† Differs From â€Å"Anticipation of Mind† Distinction between â€Å"Interpretation of Nature† and â€Å"Anticipation of Mind† relate to Bacon’s discussion of the four kinds of idols. According to Bacon, anticipation of mind entails jumping into conclusion before investigating a scientific law. That is, a conclusion is first made and it is then followed by investigations to confirm it. On the other hand, interpretation of nature entails building proof through a series of investigation and observation. Therefore, use anticipation of mind as a research tool is likely to result in conclusions that are based on beliefs and not facts. However, using interpretation of nature to research, results in building up of facts and making the

Battle of Waterloo Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Battle of Waterloo - Research Paper Example Since the achievement of such an objective is rarely feasible in practicality, although theoretically plausible, the theory of warfare attempts to teach and calculate the moral factors such as the mistakes which the enemy is likely to make; or the impression which can be created to intimidate the enemy forces. Written almost two centuries ago, by a renowned Prussian thinker and theorist, Carl von Cluausewitz, these highly controversial yet oft cited set of principles commonly referred to as the "Principles of War" present a comprehensive summary of the tactics and strategies that can be used during war. These principles have proved to be highly effective over the years, and are adopted by nations worldwide, owing to fact that they encompass all the moral as well as psychological aspects of warfare (Clausewitz, Graham, 2008). This paper on Principles of War: Battle of Waterloo discusses and analyzes the nine principles of war with regard to and as applied in the Battle of Waterloo. Th e Battle of Waterloo: Brief Overview The Battle of Waterloo was fought between the Imperial French army commanded by Emperor Napoleon and the Seventh Coalition - which comprised of an Anglo-allied army commanded by the Duke of Wellington; and the Prussian army commanded by Gebhard von Blucher. It was fought on June 18, 1815 near Waterloo which is in present-day Belgium. Napoleon’s army was defeated by the combined forces i.e. the Seventh Coalition and the Anglo-Allied army, and is considered to be historical since it marked the end of Napoleon’s tyrant rule, and his hundred days of return from exile (BBC History, 2011). The battle was historical since the mighty French emperor and military leader Napoleon’s rule came to an abrupt end after his defeat at the hands of the combined armies led by the British, German, Belgian, Dutch and the Prussians. The principles of war discussed in the following section, aims to discuss, examine, and analyze the various strategie s used by the combined forces against Napoleon’s army, that eventually led to his fall. The nine principles of war: 1. The Principle of Objective: â€Å"No one starts a war—or rather, no one in his senses ought to do so—without first being clear in his mind what he intends to achieve by that war and how he intends to conduct it†. Karl Von Clausewitz (in Mahnken & Maiolo, 2008, pp. 2) The principle of objective refers to the fundamental purpose of the war / military operation, which must be clearly identified, defined and attained in an effective manner. The two parties involved in the battle included Napoleon’s army on one hand, and the allied forces comprising of the British, the Belgians, the Germans, and the Prussians on the other. The basic objective of Napoleon was to continue his accession and dominance, and restore his power after his exile, in the year 1815 and to defeat the allied European forces which had begun to reassemble their armies in a bid to overthrow Napoleon’s rule. Napoleon’s objective was to destroy the efforts of the allied forces, prevent them from gaining more support and expanding their existing coalition, and destroy the British, Prussian, Dutch, and Belgian armies before they could gather more support and assistance from other powers. On the other hand, the basic objective of the allied forces was to stop the emperor’s (Napoleon’s) accession, and overthrow him and thus bring a halt to his reign by defeating him and to end his tyrant rule as the emperor of France. 2. The principle of Offensive: This principle entails the retention, seizing of and exploiting the initiatives of the enemy by launching an offensive

Legal Environment of Business - BLAW-3400-004 Essay

Legal Environment of Business - BLAW-3400-004 - Essay Example A qualified workers right to Family and Medical Leave started on August 5, 1993. For every leave taken prior to that date is not considered t as FMLA leave (Rossin†Slater, et. al,. 224). Nevertheless, measures succeeding under the legislation of FMLA leave intends, for instance, the child birth happening before 5 of August 1993, still permit qualified workers to the benefits of Female Medical Legislation on and after 5, of August 1993. The law contains a number of provisions linking to employer coverage as well as all government agencies; worker qualification for legislation benefits; preservation of health benefits for the period of leave, entitlement to leave and work reinstatement ; notice and certification of leave; and, safeguarding of workers who apply or get FMLA leave. Moreover, the legislation comprises certain employer recorded information (Post, Robert and Siegel, 2032). The Family Medical Leave permits workers to balance family life and their work by taking rational unpaid leave for a given reasons. The FMLA is proposed to balance the needs of families with demands of the place of work, to encourage the economic security and stability of families, and to support national interests in protecting family integrity (Waldfogel and Jane, 17). The FMLA tries to achieve these rationales in a manner that put up with the legal interests of bosses, and which reduces the possibility of employment favoritism on the basis of gender, while encouraging equal employment chances for women and men. The ratification of the Family Medical Leave was constituted on two primary distresses – the needs of America employees and the improvement of high-performance institutions (Gerstel, Naomi, and Katherine, 520). Gradually more American children and rising numbers of the aged are reliant on family members who are employed to spend lengthy hours on the work (Post, Robert and

A Rhetorical Analysis of The Video of The New iPhone 5's Keynotes Essay

A Rhetorical Analysis of The Video of The New iPhone 5's Keynotes - Essay Example I think that the keynote address on iPhone 5 by Phil Schiller attained its objective through proper use visual aids, figures of speech and the speaker’s confidence among other factors. Cooks message was related to Schiller’s which offered a perfect transition for the audience to interconnect the company progress with the new invention. The introduction of the speaker through stating his position was appropriate for the audience to realize that the information being given is first hand, tested and professional. Schiller’s keynote address is a breakdown of three parts namely; the introduction, iPhone demonstration and summary, and conclusion or fade-out. The speaker used various features of language such as rhetoric and comparative analysis to capture the attention of the audience. His prowess in public address is portrayed through the use of rhetoric language. The instances seem to be well organized by a qualified public speaker as indicated by the use of less colloquial language such as â€Å"uhs†. The introduction is dominated by the speaker’s emphasis on the uniqueness and quality of the product through the use of hyperbolic statement s such as;†...it is an absolute jewel.†(00:13:48) and† †¦simply amazing!† (0:14:55). Use of hyperbole is meant to exaggerate the quality of the product in relation to other competitors in the market. What an incredible achievement to the company following the invention (0:12:36). This portrays the magnificence of the new product in reference to its performance in the industry. During the introduction, Schiller uses interrogation, â€Å"†¦and boy, they were right!† (00:12:53), when emphasizing the popularity that the product has gained in the market. This is in reference to the news on the time magazine that indicated that the phone has changed the phones forever. A detailed presentation of the product is ensured through the use of various technological demonstrations with the

Legal Environment of Business - BLAW-3400-004 Essay

Legal Environment of Business - BLAW-3400-004 - Essay Example A qualified workers right to Family and Medical Leave started on August 5, 1993. For every leave taken prior to that date is not considered t as FMLA leave (Rossin†Slater, et. al,. 224). Nevertheless, measures succeeding under the legislation of FMLA leave intends, for instance, the child birth happening before 5 of August 1993, still permit qualified workers to the benefits of Female Medical Legislation on and after 5, of August 1993. The law contains a number of provisions linking to employer coverage as well as all government agencies; worker qualification for legislation benefits; preservation of health benefits for the period of leave, entitlement to leave and work reinstatement ; notice and certification of leave; and, safeguarding of workers who apply or get FMLA leave. Moreover, the legislation comprises certain employer recorded information (Post, Robert and Siegel, 2032). The Family Medical Leave permits workers to balance family life and their work by taking rational unpaid leave for a given reasons. The FMLA is proposed to balance the needs of families with demands of the place of work, to encourage the economic security and stability of families, and to support national interests in protecting family integrity (Waldfogel and Jane, 17). The FMLA tries to achieve these rationales in a manner that put up with the legal interests of bosses, and which reduces the possibility of employment favoritism on the basis of gender, while encouraging equal employment chances for women and men. The ratification of the Family Medical Leave was constituted on two primary distresses – the needs of America employees and the improvement of high-performance institutions (Gerstel, Naomi, and Katherine, 520). Gradually more American children and rising numbers of the aged are reliant on family members who are employed to spend lengthy hours on the work (Post, Robert and

Plastic Money Essay Example for Free

Plastic Money Essay Results for: history of wipro company Read the news for history of wipro company - Order by: Date Weighted * The History of LucasArts company Video THE BEARDED TRIO ON FACEBOOKTHE BEARDED TRIO ON TWITTERI need your Star Wars memories for a book 20/9/2012 * Apple Is Not The Most Valuable Company In The History Of The World — IBM Wo Apple is not the most valuable company in the history of the world. Its not even Microsoft, which was reported to have been toppled by Apple today. Its IBM by 21/8/2012 * Hong Kong: A history of company incorporation To mark the twentieth anniversary of the Companies Registry a report has been published, written by Professor S H Goo, providing a history of company incorporation in Hong Kong: see 14/8/2013 * The History Of London’s Power Stations The recent news that Battersea Power Station is once again up for sale will be of little surprise to long-time watchers of the crumbling riverside building. Since closure in 1983 13/3/2012 * The history of MS lingerie We are always thinking of new and innovative ways to create content for our clients. Often this involves starting from a blank page, but here’s an example of where we 27/2/2012 * Have we airbrushed the history of the Titanic? Titanic under construction at Harland and Wolff On Sunday morning, we debated that challenging question in a discussion many of you were moved to comment on by text, tweet and 6/3/2012

Disability In Sport Adverse Health And Social Care Essay

Disability In Sport Adverse Health And Social Care Essay The Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) defines a disabled person as someone who has a physical or mental impairment that has a considerable and long- term adverse effect on their ability to perform every day tasks. (DDA, 2005). Access and inclusion into sport and physical activity is difficult for many people with a disabiltiy therefor changes must be made to ensure that every person wishing to take part can do so. This could be changing the facilities so that access is better for disabled people as well as modifying equipment and training programs so that everybody can access the facilities. There are many schemes in place to help give disabled people the opportunity to participate in sporting activities. The Federation of Disability Sport Wales (FDSW) is a pan-disability National Governing Body of Sport. The aim of the FDSW project is to expand and enforce excellent sporting opportunities for people with disabilities (Disability Sports Wales, 2004). Many studies have been carried out in an increased effort to find connections between disability and physical activity but despite this increased effort problems still remain. Many young disabled people would like to be included in sporting activities and in a study the majority of people surveyed expressed a preference to participate in a sporting environment if it was organised within a disability sports. (EFDS, 2005). Sports for the disabled still remain an understudied area and should be improved greatly if it is to develop. A development for disability in sport is needed because there are people who cannot participate in sport because of reasons beyond their own control. For most disabled people, their disability is not the barrier and therefore more should be done to overcome barriers that could be easily eradicated (Barton, 1989) Many health and social benefits have been linked with a physical lifestyle. This is also true for those individuals who have a disability or long term health condition. Physical activity can not only decrease the danger of secondary health problems but can also improve all levels of functioning (Hidde et al. 2004). The Disability Discrimination Act (DDA) defines a disabled person as someone who has a physical or mental impairment that has a considerable and long- term adverse effect on their ability to perform every day tasks. (DDA, 2005). For people with a disability, accessing sporting activities can be difficult as there may not be many facilities to provide for them. Also the sports that they are able to access may not be suitable for them to be included therefore adaptations must be made to the sports to give them the opportunity to participate (Jette, 2003). This should include participation with able bodied participants also. There are schemes which run to organize safe and enjoyable sporting activities for disable people, as well as schemes that look to give access, inclusion and participation in sport for disabled and able bodied people alike (Finch et al, 2001). The Federation of Disability Sport Wales (FDSW) is a pan-disability National Governing Body of Sport. The aim of the FDSW project is to expand and enforce excellent sporting opportunities for disabled people (Disability Sports Wales, 2004) This scheme is set in Wales but there are other schemes that work towards promoting and developing disability sport throughout the UK. This report will look at disability in sport. The main issues that will be looked at are access to take part in sports as well as the inclusion for disability in the sports. With these factors being identified, participation levels for disability in sport will be examined to see what areas of the UK are working towards giving equal opportunities for disabled children and adults. Rimmer et al, (2006) reported that an investigation was carried out into the accessibility of health clubs and leisure centre for disable people. The investigation studied thirty-five health clubs and fitness services in a nationalized field test in which a new piece of equipment was used. The Accessibility Instruments Measuring Fitness and Recreation Environments (AIMFREE), was used for measuring the ease of access of fitness amenities in the built environment, the available equipment and swimming pools. In addition the information available to the service users was measured along with the facility guidelines, and the professional behaviour of the staff working within the facilities. All the facilities that the test was carried out on confirmed low to moderate levels of accessibility. Some of the deficiencies showed a cause for concern with the Disability Act guidelines regarding the built setting; other problems related to parts of the facility such as the equipment, information, p olicies, and professional staff (Davies, 2002). Many studies have been carried out in an increased effort to find connections between disability and physical activity but despite this increased effort problems still remain (Fitzgerald, 2008). Hezkiah (2005) stated that young disabled people demonstrated low levels of physical activity and perceptual motor difficulties compared to young people without a disability. This low level of activity and motor learning affects their ability to learn. Major barriers to young disabled people include language conception which is vital for following commands, and physical disabilities, which have an effect on their capability to carry out motor skills (Gatward and Burrell, 2002; Gordon and Williams, 2003). These limits can have an effect on their motivation and add to restricted opportunities for regular involvement in movement, physical activity and sports, which consecutively affects their capability to develop and progress in life. Finch et al (2001) set out to perceive the consequences of the barriers linked with disability and how it affects their levels of exercise. During the study many questions were asked to the participants were and asked to answer for a range of information, and were then asked to specify which physical activities they participate in. The subjects were asked to provide the reasons preventing their contribution to exercise. No clear inclusion or exclusion instructions were given therefore the reasons would be their own personal feelings. Findings of the study have shown that 20% of the participants acknowledged that their disability was one of the barriers preventing them from additional physical activity, with half of the participants expressing it as the most important grounds as to why they do not take part in more physical activities. Current injury or disability was a barrier to physical activity in older people more often than younger participants. Injury or disability was the main difficulty to participate in physical activity for people who are overweight or obese based upon their body mass index (BMI). This reason was stated more frequently than for those who were underweight or standard weight. Another finding during the study suggested that current injury or disability was a major barrier for people who were inactive compared to people with high levels of physical activity. The findings suggested the importance to target the support of physical activity available to overweight and older adults particularly to get them active by giving them access to facilities along with the inclusion to the activities. They go on to identify the problems that can occur with disability. They state that a person would stop exercising because of a disability rather than just becoming overweight and not exercise because of the weight problem. Rimmer et al (2004) recognized a variety of barriers and facilitators that were associated with participation levels in health and leisure programs and amenities amongst persons with disabilities. The results showed that the participants reported 178 barriers and 130 facilitators. The problems identified were barriers and facilitators connected to the built and natural environment along with economic issues. Emotional and psychological barriers were also identified as a problem. The amount of involvement in activities among disabled people is a problem due to a set of barriers and facilitators. Future research could utilize information conducted by Rimmer et al (2004) to develop participation schemes that have a superior probability of accomplishment. A report from the EFDS, (2005) showed that whilst young disabled people valued sport and recreation opportunities, they do not access their chances for physical activity on a regular basis. Disability is not a barrier to participation in sport and leisure. Regardless of rising guidelines and legislation encouraging improved participation in sports and physical exercise by young disabled people, only a restricted quantity of young disabled people do take part in physical activity. Only a small number of young disabled people can access sporting activities and opportunities outside the activities obtainable inside curricular time which includes after-school clubs, community opportunities, and general play. The persons impairment was the most significant factor to be found to have an effect on physical activity involvement. Those with multiple impairments were far less probable to take part than those with a single impairment (Maloney et al, 1993). The most frequent curriculum sports linked with disability and exercise was Athletics, Ball Games, Boccia, Cricket, Football and Swimming. There are many barriers to participation which included access to facilities and equipment. Improvements in facilities and access to equipment would improve access to sports and recreation opportunities (Williams, 2005) In studies, young disabled people have expressed a fondness for taking part in physical activity when participating in a sporting environment particularly if it was organised within a sports club specifically for other people with comparable disabilities. With consideration to the type of activity, results showed that young disabled people would like to join in physical activities that young disabled people already participating in (EFDS, 2005). There are many initiatives set up to give disabled people a chance to take part in sport and physical actvity (Norwich, 2007). The Inclusive Fitness Initiative (IFI) is a proposal that supports the fitness production to develop into a more inclusive plan that can cater for the needs of both disabled and non-disabled people alike. Through a variety of developments, the initiative has maintained facilities across England to produce a comprehensive service which results in increasing participation levels by disabled people. Parasport is a combined proposal set up in a joint initiative invloving the British Paralympic Association (BPA) and the services services firm Deloitte. Their aim is to amplify participation levels in competitive sporting events. Parasport aims to improve the identification of sports people and aims to support them at a community level. They set out to provide bursaries to assist talented and potentially top class athletes through a joint venture with SportsAid. Parasport is ran by the BPA. The BPA is the body responsible for the elite side of disability sport, although the Parasport scheme is availiable for all abilities to take part. Another initiative in place is The Talented Athlete Scholarship Scheme (TASS). This scheme is set up in England and aims to help young athletes committed to improving their potenital by sport and education. Currently there are 50 sports eligible for TASS, of which 16 are disability sports. This scheme is open to people aged between 16 and 25, with an upper age limit of 35 for people with a disablity. The scheme can provide a package of sporting activities to athletes and give them the ability to access high quality training facilities. An athletics initiative has been launched in by the Sports Council Wales to encourage more children with disabilities to participate in sport. Combined with the Federation of Disability Sport Wales, athletics sessions have been introduced where children can join in with fun sessions delivered by skilled volunteers from Welsh Athletics. The Disability Sport Wales National Community Development Programme is an initiative set up in conjunction with the Sports Council for Wales, the Federation of Disability Sport Wales and 22 local authorities across Wales. The proposal aims to develop excellent community based sporting and leisure opportunities for disabled people throughout Wales (Hughes, 2009) Arthur and Finch (1999) said that people with a disability might recognise the physical and social benefits resulting from participating in physical activity generally. However, a failure to recognise specific guidelines on the necessary frequency and extent of physical activity in order to achieve such benefits, particularly amongst older people, contributes to low participation levels. External barriers that have resulted in a lack of opportunity to contribute in physical activity among people with a disability have been widely discussed in literature (Arthur and Finch, 1999;; Doll-Tepper, 1999; DePauw and Gavron, 2005). Research has shown a range of issues, which include a lack of confidence. With the opportunity to participate, the confidence would grow and give the people a chance to be active. A Lack of physical and emotional support was also a factor that caused people with a disability not to take part in sport and physical activity. Not having someone to go with to the gym or sporting facility is another barrier (DePauw and Gavron, 2005). According to Arthur and Finch (1999), this poses a greater problem for those people with a disability who need some kind of physical, oral or visual assistance or moral support. Lack of information was a big factor in reasons to why they did not participate in sport. Arthur and Finch (1999) found that a lack of information held by people with a disability led to low awareness of the sorts of possible sporting activities and appropriate sport facilities. According to the English Federation of disability sport (2000), the lack of access to information has worsened. Lockwood and Lockwood (1997) and Doll-Tepper (1999) both said that the subsistence of poorly trained service providers, unsuitable activities and inflexible programmes as areas of particular concern. Both Arthur and Finch (1999) and DePauw and Gavron (1995) raise the issue of a lack of available facilities and say that the blame for this is due to cuts in funding. Arthur and Finch (1999) found that poor physical access at existing facilities could present a barrier to the participation of people with a disability in sporting activities, in terms of the inappropriate design of buildings, lack of aids and adaptations to equipment. Negative attitudes towards disability include those of other facility users. DePauw and Gavron (1995) found that college students held negative and stereotypical attitudes towards the inclusion of individuals with a disability in physical education and sport. Arthur and Finch (1999) found a correlation between the negative and conventional attitudes of other sport centre users. This then produced a lack of confidence and motivation for people with a disability. National statistics show the lowest participation rates for disabled people. They produced a Taking part and active people survey which showed that 8.8 9.5% disabled adults participated in regular moderate activity (Sport England, 2006; DCMS, 2007). It also found that 44% of disabled young people did not take part in regular physical activity (Sport England, 2001) Research has shown that disabled young people do participate in sport both in and out of school (Finch et al, 2001). However, both the overall rate of participation and the frequency with which disabled young people take part in sport is lower than for young people in general. There are also important differences between participation in school compared with out of school participation. In school young disabled people participated in sport more frequently than they did out of school. However, this pattern was the reverse for all young people (Corneliben and Pfeifer, 2007) An initiative set up in Ireland is called Disability Sport Donegal. This scheme aims to give children an opportunity to participate in sporting activities. They aim to offer a wide range of activities that include Boccia and martial arts. They develop the programme for inclusion into sports for disabled people. They also look to form a relationship with local schools to include children in sporting activities. With the inclusion within schools they can then develop programmes out side of school and give opportunities to disabled children and adults to take part in sports clubs that provide the safe, fun environment and facilities that are needed to give a wider range of activities to disabled people (Donegal Sports 2007) Research has shown that many people with a disability do not take part in sport because they dont have access to the facilities or equipment they needed (Paciorek and Jones, 2001). In addition travel was shown to be a barrier as they were unable to get to and from any accessible venues. Lack of information was a problem for the many of the participants and parents because they were unaware of facilities or clubs offering activities for disability. Organisations were identified during the questioning, including Viva project and RCT Tigers. Viva is a registered Charity that was established in November 1992 to work with young people with a disability aged between 11 and 25 with who live in Rhondda Cynon Taff. The ethos of the Viva project is to facilitate and support all the youth service members to become fully involved in community activities. Viva believes that this ethos can encourage young people to develop better liberty and make more choices for themselves. The main aim of Viva is to challenge their service members to raise their ambitions while they broaden their experiences and abilities. They try to give confidence to the members to develop greater independence and make more knowledgeable choices for themselves. At the same time they aim to elevate community awareness in accepting disabled people as valued members of the community (Sports Council Wales, 2006) Vivas aim is to create equal and respected relationships between disabled young people and their non disabled peers. They look for disabled young people to participate in active community amenities, which they may have been conventionally excluded from because of the stigma and separation that is related with disability. Viva believe that by giving young people the same chances as their peers, people can learn and work together to meet the challenges we face in life. RCT Tigers FC is a pan disability football club for young children in the Rhondda Cynon Taff Area which was set up in January 2008. It was founded to improve opportunities for disability sports in Rhondda Cynon Taff. With these organisations set up it is important that extra work is conducted to make them successful. It is imperative because without these organisations people with a disability would not be able to take part in any sport or physical activity. It is also important to develop new initiatives as well as making the existing organisations more accessible by better information and promotion. With the development of initiatives, disability in sport can develop and give opportunity to people where participation would be difficult and inaccessible (Yuen et al, 2007). In conclusion I feel that physical activity and sports participation can improve a disabled persons health and well-being. Regular exercise and inclusion in sports by disabled people is as important as it is for their active counterparts. Professionals working with people with disabilities should enthusiastically encourage participation in sports and recreation activities. The relationship of sports for the disabled is difficult. Sports are a rehabilitating tool for integration into society and a way for them to remain active. In addition, sports and disability as portrayed by the media often still broadcast existing stereotypes that erect social barriers for the disabled, in the area of social perception (Barton, 2001) Sports for the disabled still remain an understudied area and should be improved greatly if it is to develop. A development for disability in sport is needed because there are people who cannot participate in sport because of reasons beyond their own control. For most disabled people, their disability is not the barrier and therefore more should be done to overcome barriers that could be easily eradicated (Barton, 1989)

Ford :: essays research papers

Nirmal Tanna Dissertation 11.10.2000 Tutor: D Dovey, TUESDAY 12pm. Question How do the changes/reduction in UK car prices affect the maufaterer and customer? Research will be collected via the internet i.e prices & product information. Internet car buying has also changed the traditional way that an individual would procure a brand new motor vehicle. Other sources such as the AA, DVLA and TOP GEAR (BBC telavision program), will be contacted. The DVLA in Swansea may have intresting information on trends with have been influenced in the price restructuring. Interviews with the director and owner of a Ford garage will also help to see how the changes are effecting the industry. This will help to establish how reduced UK prices are comming in line with main land Europe. Aspects such as recent changes in vehicle equipment levels, and general quality will also be of interest as the maufacturer has to tighten his profit margins. Lots of garages will be contactes this shall help establish which have reduced prices and offer deals to intise customers. General trends will be apparent, but each dealer is a franchise so a particular Dealer i.e. BMW may be offering different packages around the country, even though list prices remain transparent. Government Legislation has also been a crucial factor behind the reduction In Inflated UK prices. This highly topical subject has also been investigated and highlighted Recently in the media. Monday, May 10, 1999 Published at 12:18 GMT 13:18 UK Business: The Company File Ford sparks price war Pressure to reduce the price of new cars is increasing Car-buyers in the UK could benefit from a price war as one of the biggest name brands, Ford, signals its intent to compete more fiercely. Ford is reportedly giving UK dealers a discount of  £3,000 on its Mondeo models, as long as they can sell at least 10 cars a month. Some industry experts believe this could be the start of a price war as manufacturers such as Daewoo and Hyundai shape up for a renewed onslaught on the UK car market. The pressure to reduce prices has been mounting from various sources during the past year. The Competition Commission is currently investigating why car prices in the UK are among the highest in Europe and there has been fierce criticism from an all-party select committee of MPs over the same issue. Motoring journalist Mike Rutherford says that price reductions by Ford - the UK's market leader - are long overdue. He said: "I would much rather see that  £3,000 discount applying not to the dealer but to the end consumer

The Role of Polyglutamine Expansions in Huntington’s Disease Essay

Huntington’s disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative dominant disorder caused by the expansions of polyglutamine in the gene encoding for Huntington’s protein. It is a developmental autosomal brain disorder that affects muscle coordination, emotional and personality problems. As well as subcortical dementia, further leading to cognitive decline this is all related with selective neuronal cell death mainly associated in the striatum and cortex (Scherzinger et al., 1997). HD causes emotional problems, uncontrolled movements and the loss of thinking ability. It can lead to disability and death from the illness. There are two forms of this disease: adult-onset and early-onset (juvenile). Adult onset is by the far most common for HD; symptoms develop between the ages of mid 30s/40s, an individual will live an average of 20 years after symptoms and signs begin. Premature signs and symptoms are depression, involuntary movements, trouble learning new information, poor coordination; this can all progress very severely. The development of pre-disease symptoms into twitching or jerking is referred as Chorea. HD can be referred to Huntington Chorea. Although adult onset is more common disorder, juvenile form, defined by the onset of signs and symptoms before the age of 21 years, this occurs in about 7% of HD cases. (Nance, 2001) Juvenile onset has similar symptoms however the disease progresses more quickly compared to the adult onset form. Gente (1985) results showed findings by others, that the most juvenile-onset patients inherit the gene from their fathers and that the late-onset form is more frequently inherited from affected mothers. HD occurs due to CAG/polyglutamine(polyQ) expansions, in the first exon of a gene encoding a la... ..., C. and Bates, G, P. (2004). Huntingtin and the molecular pathogenesis of Huntington’s disease. EMBO reports 5. 958-963 Nance, M, A. and Myers, R, H. (2001) Panov, A, V., Gutekunst, C., Leavitt, B, R., Hayden, M, R., Burke, J, R., Strittmatter, W, J. And Greenamyre, J, T. (2002) Early mitochondrial calcium defects in Huntington’s Disease are a direct effect of Polyglutamines. Nature neuroscience. Volume 5 no 8 Ross, C, A. (2002). Polyglutamine Pathogenesis: Emergence of Unifying Mechanism for Huntington’s Disease and Related Disorders. Neuron, Vol. 35,819-822. Scherzinger, E., Lurz, R., Turmaine, M., Mangiarini, L., Hollenbach, Birgit., Hasenbank, R., Bates, G, P., Davies, S, W., Lehrach, H and Wanker, E, E. (1997). Huntington-Encoded Polyglutamine Expansions Form Amyloid-like Protein Aggregates In Vitro and In Vivo. Cell, Vol.90, 549-558. Zhang,

Why Did Korea Fall Victim To Japanese Imperialism History Essay

This essay tries to lucubrate the causes which contributed to the autumn of Korea to Nipponese imperialism by foremost analyzing the development of Nipponese imperialism, and so looking into the competitions between Japan and its two major competitions, viz. China and Russia in their control over Korea. In 1853, Japan was forced to open itself to the outside universe by the United States. It was so pressured by the imperialist powers to subscribe unequal pacts which granted aliens in Japan extraterritoriality and which imposed on Japan low duty rates. Reduced to the semi-colonial position, Japan all of a sudden realized that the universe was non a safe topographic point. In order to forestall being farther subjugated by the Western powers, the leaders of the Meiji authorities which was formed in 1868 after the ruin of the Tokugawa Shogunate, formulated a chauvinistic policy of fukoku kyA?hei ( rich state, strong military ) , qualifying Japan ‘s ends to catch up with the Western powers economically and to increase its military strength to guarantee its position as an independent state. The preparation of the policy initiated the development of Nipponese imperialism.Development of Nipponese ImperialismThere were several grounds for the development of Nipponese imperialism. First was the concern for its security and safety. Japan ‘s demand for security intensified as authorities leaders recognized the demand to beef up the defence of Japan against Russia and other Western powers. Bing cognizant of the advanced technological accomplishments and military high quality of the West, Japan had frights of invasion from Western states such as Russia. Furthermore, China was militarily and economically weak to the extent that Japan was concerned that China would fall in under the subjugation of the Western powers, which would hold profound negative impact on the security of Japan. Yamagata Aritomo, male parent of the modern Nipponese ground forces, who advocated demand of enlargement more out of security ground than of conquest ground, recommended that Japan non merely protect its ain sovereignty but besides its line of involvement, which meant that Japan should non merely guarantee the security in the fatherland, but besides need to widen its influence and con trol to the continent in order to guarantee its security. Control over Korea was hence a important component in protecting Japan against Western states because of the two states ‘ geographical proximity and Korea being surrounding with both China and Russia. That the Korea peninsular as a â€Å" sticker pointed at Japan † should non fall in hostile custodies was a chief end of Nipponese foreign policy. The 2nd ground that Japan embarked on imperialism was the aspiration from the Western powers. Japan had been detecting and larning from the Western powers ‘ intense competitions and imperialistic acquisitions. From its acrimonious experience, Japan learned that imperialism would assist work more resources which could ease a state to develop faster. Fukuzawa Yukichi and other authors supported foreign expansionism. Japan subsequently applied what she learned from the Western powers to Korea in precisely the format that she was treated by the Western powers. The 3rd ground that gave rise to Nipponese imperialism was Japan ‘s belief in its function of leading for Asia states. Many Nipponese leaders came to the belief that Japan had a â€Å" manifest fate † to liberate the Asiatic states from Western imperialistic powers and to take them to collective strength and prosperity. Some ultranationalist groups such as the Black Dragon Society, every bit good as some influential authors, became progressively popular. These groups and authors hold the positions that Japan should take the function of leading in Asia to throw out foreign powers. They believed that the Yamato race as posterities of the Sun goddess entitled the Japanese to such a function. In 1905, Japan ‘s triumph over Russia in the Russo-Japanese war made Japan the first Asiatic state to get the better of a Western power. This position farther bolstered Japan ‘s belief in its function to take Asia and tried to convert other Asiatic states that merely under t he Nipponese leading would they stand a opportunity to throw out Western imperialism. From the beginning of the Meiji Period in 1868, Japan sought to do the state an industrial and military power similar to that of the Western imperialist powers. The Meiji leaders ‘ desire to turn Japan into a ace state ( itto koku ) besides included the power and prestigiousness derived from foreign territorial ownerships. Therefore, it was inevitable that Japan would fall in the nine of the powers in demands for privileges and rights in other Asiatic states. However, the Meiji authorities realized that its military needed to be modernized and strengthened before it presented its demands to the Western powers. Although the Meiji oligarchs were restraint in the outward looks of imperialism in the early old ages of the Meiji period, this did non connote that they disagreed with the aims of foreign enlargement. They considered it necessary that focal point should be on modernisation and economic growing to catch up with Western industrial powers prior to taking any important stair ss to spread out Japan ‘s influence in foreign affairs. To catch up with the Western powers and shorten the procedure in the development of imperialism, Japan had to emulate the bing theoretical accounts from the Western powers. Japan had been rolling the way of its imperialism enlargement. In fact, the pick proved to be excessively much, and Japan tried to play for safety by aping both of the two major powers, Britain and Germany, and waiting to see in which way the battle would finally travel. Though it appeared to be prudent, the policy was dearly-won, for the creative activity of both a big ground forces and a big naval forces imposed an inordinate load on a less developed state like Japan. Therefore, Britain, the paramount Power of the twenty-four hours, seemed to be the obvious and surely the most popular paradigm. The similarities that both states are in place of a group of islands situated near to a Continental land-mass, implying a similar involvement in the balance of power, and the evident success of the British method of back uping a turning population by intensive industrialisation and abroad trade, convinced Japan that emulating the Britain theoretical account would function her ain best involvements. In add-on, since both Britain and Japan so felt threatened by the same competition, viz. Russia, a stronger bond besides grew up between the two states. In 1902, Britain, â€Å" the Empire on which the Sun ne'er sets, † entered into an confederation with Japan, â€Å" the Empire of the Rising Sun. † However, the prevailing samurai leading in the Nipponese military tradition, instinctively regarded the ground forces as of greater importance, and was determined that its modernisation should followed the theoretical accounts of the taking military state in the West which, in 1868, was the Gallic. Indeed, and mostly for this ground, Gallic prestigiousness stood 2nd merely to that of Britain, in the eyes of the Meiji leading. However, the Swift and unexpected result of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 showed the Gallic military repute to be out of day of the month. To those Nipponeses who had most admired the Second Empire, it was a profound daze. With characteristic pragmatism, Japan began to look alternatively to the Germans, who had non merely defeated the Gallic but at the same clip had achieved national fusion under the Prussian monarchy in the new Reich of 1871. German ‘s public presentation was of exceeding involvement to Japan. Therefore, non merely did the Nipponese switch from Gallic to German developing for their ground forces, whose organisation was wholly remodelled in 1878, but by the 1880s were trusting to a great extent on German expertness in many other Fieldss as good, notably in medical specialty and industrial and commercial pattern. While, on the one manus, the dramatic due east progress of Russian imperialism was showing a turning menace to the mainland instantly opposite the Nipponese islands. As the Russians turned their attending farther due souths in hunt of ice-free ports and, after building began on the Trans-Siberian Railway in 1891, the menace to Korea, and by deduction therefore to Japan itself, became acute. By necessity, Japan had to undertake the immediate job on the continent on its west alternatively of traveling South, which was wholly different from the historical British attack of avoiding Continental webs. Japan allowed herself to be drawn, through the peninsulas, of all time more closely into the personal businesss of the mainland.Korea ‘s Traditional Relations with China and JapanAt the beginning of the 19th century Korea continued to bask the stable relationships with China and Japan as she had done for the past 160 old ages. With China, Korea maintained a liqueur relationship which w as based on the Chinese claim of suzerainty over Korea. The authorities of Korea sent regular missions transporting testimonials to the emperor of China at least one time a twelvemonth, normally at the clip of the winter solstice, and irregular missions on other particular occasions, as an look of its entry to China. The Chinese authorities reciprocated by directing imperial missions on particular occasions such as the decease of an of import royal individual or the coronation of a new male monarch. With Japan, Korea had maintained contact on two degrees. Since the early 17th century, Korea had sent occasional communicating envoys to Edo transporting congratulatory messages on the accession of a new shogun. Their maps normally were largely ceremonial. Korea besides maintained a much closer relationship with the feudal feoff in the islands that lay across the Korean Strait between southwesterly Japan and the Korean peninsula. Poor in natural resources, Tsushima depended much on Korea n trade for their support. The daimyo of Tsushima had long entered into a quasi tributary relationship with the Korean male monarch, which gave him the monopoly of Nipponese trade with Korea, and besides had served as a diplomatic mediator between the authoritiess in Edo and Seoul. Korea had suffered vastly at the custodies of these two neighbours. First by the Japanese who, under the hegemonic Toyotomi Hideyoshi, invaded Korea in the late 16th century. After the Manchu conquering of China in 1644, the opinion house of Yi Korea suffered much adversity at the custodies of the Manchus who suspected the Koreans of pro-Ming motivations. From these traumatic experiences, Korea developed alone policies of Sadae ( ‘serving the great ‘ China ) and Gyorin ( ‘neighborly dealingss ‘ with Japan ) that tried to keep good relationship with both China and Japan. The end of these relationships was to exclude all intercourse between Korea and China and Japan, except for formalistic ceremonial exchanges of minister plenipotentiary and limited trade conducted under close official supervising. In both relationships, even though the 1 with China was unequal in position and the other with Japan was equal, that the tributary missions to China and the communica ting envoys to Japan were dispatched signified Korea ‘s desire to maintain these two neighbours at a safe distance. The two policies besides complemented one another: by subjecting themselves to China ‘s suzerain claim, the Koreans gained a defensive confederation against Japan ; on the other manus, the Gyorin relationship non merely enabled Korea to hold control on Nipponese seamans ‘ torment along its sea shores, but besides gave Korea a utile bargaining place against China as a buffer on the Chinese northeasterly frontier. The two policies had served Korea good in maintaining the two neighbours at bay. With the enlargement of Western powers in the North East Asia, Japan became more concerned about the state of affairs in Korea. Out of the fright of Russian enlargement, the Nipponese adhered to a policy of prefering the independency of Korea and the constitution of diplomatic dealingss with the great powers as a possible agency of preventing any Russian aspirations to annex or busy the peninsula. In 1868 a particular Nipponese minister plenipotentiary was dispatched to Korea to inform the authorities of the Imperial Restoration that had taken topographic point in Japan and to discourse the constitution of diplomatic dealingss, but the Korean Court refused to cover with him. In the undermentioned twelvemonth two more Nipponese missions were besides rebuffed by the Korean Government. In 1872 another mission who was accompanied by two war vessels besides failed in an attempt to discourse a commercial pact. These apathetic reactions of the Korean Government greatly inflamed Nipponese pu blic sentiment and some even called for war against the Korean. Soejima Taneomi, so interim Foreign Minister, was sent to inform the Chinese Government of Japan ‘s attitude and policy refering Korea. In Peking, the functionaries informed Soejima that, while Korea was a liege province, China was non responsible for the Korean internal personal businesss and the jobs of peace or war. Upon returning to Japan, Soejima urged his authorities to occupy and suppress Korea. But Emperor Meiji decided to settle the Korean job by peaceful agencies since Japan was non yet strong plenty to transport out expensive abroad wars. In 1875, a Nipponese committee was sent to Korea to negociate a pact of cordiality and commercialism. This clip the mission was instructed to use the house methods that had been so successfully employed by Perry and Harris against Japan before. At the same clip, Japan obtained confidences from China that no expostulation would be raised to diplomatic treatments provide d the pact was restricted to the gap of Korea to commerce. Under the Nipponese force per unit area, Korea signed the Treaty of Kianghwa, which provided for the constitution of diplomatic dealingss, the gap of three ports, and exterritorial legal power over Nipponese subjects. One of the most important commissariats was Article I, which stipulated that Korea, â€Å" being an independent State, enjoys the same crowned head rights as does Nippon. † This proviso was the first measure in Japan ‘s program to detach Korea from the suzerainty of China.Japan ‘s competition with China and RussiaFrom 1976 to 1894, Japan and China engaged in a series of struggle over the control of Korea. One some occasions the struggles were at the brink of war. These struggles resulted in Japan ‘s increasing and China ‘s diminishing influence in Korean personal businesss. Japan did non desire to travel to war with China because of deficiency of house strong belief that China cou ld be defeated. During this period, Korea underwent an internal convulsion between the cabals of Tai Om Kun, who was pro-Chinese, and the Min Family. The Nipponese authorities was profoundly concerned in the state of affairs and feared that unless Korea were rapidly reformed and a stable authorities established, some powerful states such as Russia might take it as a stalking-horse for intercession. On July 23, 1882, Tai Om Kun encouraged a rabble of rebellious Korean military personnels to assail the Nipponese legateship and seized the King and Queen. The royal household managed to get away, and the Nipponese minster and his staff fought their manner to board a British vas and returned to Japan. The minster subsequently returned to Korea, accompanied by a force of 800 military personnels and 3 patrol cars. Offer to be a go-between, China besides sent war vessels and a force of 4,000 military personnels to Korea. The Chinese seized and took Tai Om Kun to China. Japan turned down the mediation offer and carried out direct dialogues with the Korean Government. An understanding was subsequently reached between Japan and Korea. The Korean authorities was forced to pay an insurance to Japan, to penalize the persons involved in the indignation, and to admit the right of Japan to post military forces in Korea. Despite the sign language of the Treaty of Kianghwa, China still considered Korea a dependent province of China. In September 1882, China concluded a commercial convention with Korea, repeating that Korea was still a tributary province of China. The Korean Government concluded this convention in a hope that China might be able to look into on the Nipponese incursion. In 1884, China involved in a war with France. In fright that a direct war with China at this clip might give other powers chances to step in in Korea, Japan wanted to hold a peaceable colony with China. A mission was so sent to Tientsin for direct treatments with China on the position of Korea. Whil e the treatments were in advancement, the war between France and China came to an terminal to the advantage of China, which gave China a stronger place in the treatment. In April 1885, the two sides came to an understanding that both states would retreat military personnels from Korea, and that in the hereafter neither state would direct military personnels into Korea without advising the other in progress. The understanding was a farther measure on the Nipponese side in that it gave Japan the same right over Korea as that of China. Despite of its success of upgrading its place equal to that of China, Japan was still concerned of its security in respects to Korea, whose geographical location and internal status still was a enticement to the powers such as Russia to hold a manus in. Japan believed that the failing of the Korean Government would finally ask for foreign intercession. The ideal method to cover with this potency was to manage the Korea internal personal businesss harmonizing to the Nipponese theoretical account, sooner done by Japan itself. Therefore, China was regarded as an obstruction. Merely when the Chinese influence was eradicated could Japan presume the place of primary influence over the Korean Government. On the other manus, China still attempted to derive complete control over Korea by reinstalling Tai Om Kun back to Korea and to blockade Japan at every chance. The competition finally led to war. In 1893, the alleged Tong Hak Society ( Society of Eastern Learning ) broke out a rebellion against the maladministration of the Korean Government. In June1894, at the petition of the Korean King, China deployed a big figure of military personnels to Korea and informed Japan of the deployment harmonizing to the 1885 understanding between the two sides. In neglect of the Chinese presentment, Japan besides dispatched military personnels to Korea. However, by the clip both Chinese and Nipponese military personnels arrived, the rebellion had been brought under control by the Korean Government. The King requested the backdown of the Chinese and Nipponese military personnels, which was refused. Both sided insisted that the other withdrew foremost. On July 24, under the force per unit area from Japan, the Korean King authorized Japan to throw out the Chinese military personnels. On July 25, China and Japan went to war. The Chinese military personnels were no lucifer for the better trained and better equipped Nipponese military personnels. In September, Nipponese military personnels captured Pyongyang and began its thrust toward the Yalu River in chase of the crumpling Chinese military personnels. The Nipponese naval forces besides scored a decisive triumph at the conflict of the Yellow Sea. The Nipponese military personnels subsequently landed in southern Manchuria and on the Shandong peninsula. Fearing that farther opposition would ensue in an onslaught on its capital Peking, China consented to negociate peace. A pact was signed at Shimonoseki on April 17, 1895. Harmonizing to the pact, China had to pay a immense insurance to Japan, and to yield Taiwan, the Pescadores Islands and the Liaotung Peninsula. In the pact, China was forced to officially recognized Korea as a crowned head and independent province. However, merely six yearss after subscribing the pact, Germany, Russia, and France organized a tripower intercession to coerce Japan to reconstruct the Liaodong peninsula to China. The triumph in the Sino-Japanese was of great significance to Japan ‘s route to imperialism. Besides winning a bridgehead on the mainland by keeping paramount influence on the Korean peninsula, the acquisition of Taiwan offered both an agriculturally rich sphere to Japan and a strategically of import island out of the southern seashore of China. The immense insurance fueled to speed up the enlargement of Nipponese industries. Most of import of all, Japan now stood up as a great power, recognized by the other great powers as every bit powerful. Japan became a fully fledged member in the nine of imperialist powers. In 1902, Japan and Britain entered a common defence confederation, which in consequence recognized Japan as one of the universe ‘s great powers. However, Japan had another competition to cover with before it could to the full exert its power to run Korean personal businesss. With China holding eliminated from Korean personal businesss, Russia seized the chance to widen its influence on the peninsula. After several failed efforts to peacefully settle the struggles of their involvements in Korea and Manchuria, in February, 1904, Japan went to war with Russia. The war was a military catastrophe for Russia. The Nipponese ground forces moved from triumph to triumph in the conflict field. On May 27, the Nipponese navy virtually destructing the Russia fleet in the conflict of Tsushima. The two sides eventually agreed to negociate peace as the two sides were exhausted both militarily and economically by the war. A pact was signed on September 5, 1905. In the pact, Russia acknowledged Japan ‘s overriding political, military and economic involvements in Korea.The Fall of KoreaNumerous understandings were exchanged between Japan a nd Korea during the last three decennaries of the nineteenth century and the first decennary of the twentieth century, which incrementally and jointly culminated to the 1910 appropriation pact in which Korea became a district of Japan. Of these understandings, the most of import 1s were those made in 1904 and 1905, which resulted in Korea going a associated state of Japan, and a 1907 understanding which placed the Korean internal personal businesss in the manus of Japan ‘s Resident-General. In 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War, Korea became a quasi-protectorate of Japan. On 22 August 1904, Korea agreed to â€Å" follow the advice † of Japan sing â€Å" betterments in disposal † , while Japan agreed to guarantee â€Å" the safety and rest of the Imperial House of Korea † and vouch â€Å" the independency and territorial unity † of Korea. After the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, Korea became a full associated state of Japan. In the understanding signed on 17 November 1905, Japan agreed to stand for Korea in its dealingss with other states and to protect â€Å" the topics and involvements of Korea † in other states. As Korea ‘s placeholder in foreign personal businesss, Japan would intercede all bing and future pacts between Korea and other states. On 24 July 1907, Korea and Japan signed an understanding which gave the Resident-General the authorization to the full control of Korea ‘s domestic personal businesss. On 22 August, 1910, the Emperor of Korea ceded his sovereignty over Korea to the Emperor of Japan. On 29 August, 1910, the ceding was announced to the universe at big and became lawfully effectual. Japan ‘s logic of appropriation was simply following the enchiridion by John W. Foster, the former US Secretary of State who argued in a widely circulated reference before the National Geographic Society, in 1897, that the United States should annex Hawaii, other than make it associated state, in order to forestall it from falling into the custodies of a rival and possible enemy, viz. Japan. Foster ‘s statements were exactly what Japan had in head. A decennary subsequently, Japan decided that Korea should be an built-in portion of Japan, and non merely a associated state. In fact, it is dramatic that the tactics that Japan applied to open Korea was following precisely what the US had taught Japan in 1853.DecisionNipponese imperialism was different from its opposite number of the Western powers ‘ . Unlike imperialism of the Western powers whose major aims was economic, at the early phase of Japan ‘s imperialistic enlargement, security was the primary thrust. Th erefore, Japan ‘s imperialistic enlargement at the early phase was instead prudent and less aggressive. Having experienced the resentment of being oppressed by the Western powers, Japan was sensitive in term of its ain security. Even though the unexpected economic additions from suppressing and from immense insurance, every bit good as the pride and prestigiousness were added to its drift at the ulterior phase of enlargements, security was still the taking concern. Japan believed that a weak authorities would take to foreign intercession. The autumn of Korea to the Western powers would jeopardize her ain security, so would the autumn of China and other Asiatic states. Since Asiatic states could non reform their authoritiess on their ain, it was necessary for Japan to presume the leading and take the duty to convey alterations to those states by usage of force. By making so, Japan could finally guarantee her ain security. The geographical importance with a weak authorities of K orea, and the concern of security of Japan and the sense of duty, were the causes that turned Korea victim of Nipponese imperialism.